Economy in Mesoamerica
MEGAN BOMMARITO
Meso America was broken into different groups which resulted in a diverse development of each group economically. Each region specialized in something like the extraction of natural resources and trading.
* Pacific lowlands - cotton and cochineal.
* Maya lowlands and the Gulf Coast – cacao, vanilla, jaguar skins, birds and bird feathers (especially quetzal and macaw).
* Central Mexico – Obsidian (Pachuca).
* Guatemalan highlands – Obsidian (San Martin Jilotepeque, El Chayal, and Ixtepeque), pyrite, and jade from the Motagua River valley.
* Coastal areas – salt, dry fish, shell, and dyes.
Sea shells were used as currency during the preclassic period coming from both the atlantic and pacific coasts. After the preclassic period, cacao was used in transactions until the postclassic time in which gold coins were used.
The economy of Tenochtitlan was built off of one overwhelming fact: the urban population on the island required high levels of economic support from surrounding areas. In its earliest history, Tenochtitlan was self-supporting; the village was small and agriculture was managed through the chinampa method of architecture, practiced widely throughout Mesoamerica. In the chinampa , flat reeds were placed in the shallow areas of the lake, covered with soil, and then cultivated. In this way, the Aztecs reclaimed much of the lake for agriculture. A large part of the city's population were farmers; at its height (100,000-300,000), at least half the population would leave the city in the morning to go farm and return in the evening.
The city itself consisted of a large number of priests and craftspeople; the bulk of the economy rested on extensive trade of both necessary and luxury items. Tenochtitlan was a true urban center. It had a permanent population, it had a large and bustling market (the Spanish estimated that at least 60,000 people crowded the market), and it had the beginnings of economic class. For the kinship groups of the city were divided up into calpulli , many of which practiced a specific craft or trade, such as rope-making or pot-making. While there is a great deal of controversy over the precise nature of the capulli , it seems to be a transition point between kinship organization (the calpulli were kinship groups) and economic class (the calpulli specialized in particular crafts). In addition, the calpulli seemed to be arranged in ranks: there was the highest calpulli , another five calpulli that had schools for nobility, and then all the rest.
The Aztecs did have two clearly differentiated social classes. At the bottom were the macehualles, or "commoners," and at the top the pilli, or nobility. These were not clearly differentiated by birth, for one could rise into the pilli by virtue of great skill and bravery in war.
All male children went to school. At the age of 15, each male child went to telpuchcalli ("house of youth"), where he learned the history and religion of the Aztecs, the art of war and fighting, the trade or craft specific to his calpulli , and the religious and civic duties of everyday citizenship. The children of nobility also attended another school, a school of nobility or calmecac , if he was a member of one of the top six calpulli . There the child learned the religious duties of priests and its secret knowledge; for the distinction between government and religious duties was practically non-existent. This public education was only limited to boys.
In Aztec society, women were regarded as the subordinate of men. Above everything else, they were required to behave with chastity and high moral standards. For the most part, all government and religious functions were closed off to women. In fact, one of the most important religious offices, the Snake Woman, was always filled by men. There were some temples and gods that had priestesses, who had their own schools, but their exact position in the hierarchy is unknown.
Aztec laws were simple and harsh. Almost every crime, from adultery to stealing, was punished by death and other offenses usually involved severe corporal punishment or mutilation (the penalty for slander, for instance, was the loss of one's lips). This was not a totalitarian state, however; there was a strong sense of community among the Aztecs and these laws, harsh as they seem, were supported by the community rather than an autocratic judiciary.
Slavery was common among the Aztecs; it was not, however, racial or permanent. One became a slave by being captured in war, by committing certain crimes, such as theft, by voluntarily entering into slavery, or by being sold by one's parents. If one was captured in war, slavery was a pleasant option, for the purpose of Aztec warfare was primarily the capture of live human sacrifices. If, however, one had a useful trade, the Tenochca would forego the sacrifice and employ the captive in that trade.
There was little distinction between the religious and the secular hierarchy, although historians and anthropologists argue that the Aztecs developed farther than any other Mesoamerican group a secular aspect of society. At the very top of the hierarchy was the tlacatecuhtli , or "chief of men." He dominated all the religious ceremonies and served as a military leader. Below the tlacatecuhtli were a series of religious offices and some secular functions, such as military generals.
(http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAMRCA/AZTECS.HTM)
MAYA GOVERNMENT
Political, economic, and social institutions characteristic of the governmental form
In Sharer’s view, during the Classic Maya period (ca. A.D. 250-900) state-level political organization developed, particularly in the southern and central lowlands. During the Late Classic (ca. 600-800) new state polities emerged and population peaked. During the Terminal Classic (ca.800-900 the southern and central lowlands declined and the northern lowlands rose (Sharer 1994:138). An economic system of contributing labor and food to the state and acquiring tribute from neighboring polities developed. Political alliances could be strengthened through marriage of the ruler. The Classic Maya form of political organization, with no standing armies, appears to have emphasized the qualities of the individual leader, and was closer to the "big man" system of Papua New Guinea, rather than the Zapotec political organization which emphasized the office rather than the individual. The coercion that a Mayan leader like 18 rabbit could impose on a city state apparently had limits since he was perhaps forcibly "given up" during a neighboring polity’s conquest and sacrificed. The Zapotec considered the generic political office to be more important than the individual’s personal characteristics, and in Oaxaca powerful families ruled in a kind of confederacy with hereditary palaces and a disembedded capitol, which was both an administrative and ceremonial center supported through tribute and conquest. Similar to the Aztecs, each valley in this confederacy was semi-independent.
Aztec government
War and tribute were central to the Aztec empire, which gained territory, subjects, and economic power as it expanded (Berdan 1982:35). War was a nearly constant activity requiring a large bureaucracy supported by tribute (Id. at 38). "Aztec rulers were chosen from eligible royal offspring by a council of noble elders" (Marcus and Flannery 1983:218). Manufacturing, trade, and agriculture were the main economic institutions for the creation of tribute. Traders were used as a kind of spy network outside the empire and provided information for future areas of conquest. The form of government at the time of the Triple Alliance was a confederacy that bonded together militarily, politically, and economically. The Aztec empire was a multiethnic and multilingual political organization. Near the end of the empire, religious and military activity may have resulted in the astounding figure of 20,000 human sacrifices per year.
Map of the Mesoamerican city-states
The earliest Maya were farmers who lived in small, scattered villages of pole and thatch houses. They cultivated their fields as a community, planting seeds in holes made with a pointed wood stick. Later in the Preclassic period, they adopted intensive farming techniques such as continuous cultivation involving crop rotation and fertilizers, household gardens, and terraces. In some areas, they built raised fields in seasonal swamps. Their main crops included maize (corn), beans, squash, avocados, chili peppers, pineapples, papayas, and cacao, which were made into a chocolate drink with water and hot chilies. The women ground corn on specially shaped grinding stones and mixed the ground meal with water to make a drink known as atole or to cook as tortillas (flat cakes) on flat pottery griddles. The Maya also drank balche made from fermented honey mixed with the bark of the balche tree. Rabbits, deer, and turkeys were hunted for making stews. Fishing also supplied part of their diet. Turkeys, ducks, and dogs were kept as domesticated animals.
In the early Classic period Teotihuacán in central Mexico emerged as the greatest city in Mesoamerica, an area that included modern Mexico and most of Central America. The religious and political power of Teotihuacán radiated throughout Mesoamerica. One result of Teotihuacán’s influence was a highly integrated network of trade in which the Maya participated.
Mesoamerican cultures did great work in the realm of the economy. Farmers learned how to grow maize in different ways as well as cultivate lands that were mostly swampy. They saw some of the highest crop yields of the ancient world. They also had great success making things such as obsidian glass pottery and bronze sculptures
The civilizations of Mesoamerica had complex economies which were divided into three realms: production, distribution and consumption.
May 05, 2009
May 03, 2009
Military in Mesoamerica
The Use of Military in Mesoamerica
By Dennis Dunkins II
The use of the military in Mesoamerican culture was not merely an adventure in the use of force to settle political disagreements, but multipurpose in religious, socio-economic and spiritual conceptualize thought.
In many of these societies the objective range from the subjugation of enemies to the need to reduce competition for resources, which often led to greater expansion and further confiscation of resources. An additional reason for violent conflict was the need for the leader to fulfill religious obligations to legitimize their authority to rule. Many of the Kings used warfare to promote their mystical persona and all new rulers were expected to open their new rule with a successful campaign against a chosen enemy. The unfortunate captives were purposefully taken in these exchanges for sacrifice, to prove the Divinity link of the ruler over all life.
The Campaign
Many ancient societies used warfare, as a means to pillage another’s treasuries or control trade routes, but to the Mesoamericans war had to be multifaceted for all of society. These campaigns had a multiple purposes: it increases new resources for the new ruler. Next it opened up society for the commoners through their military exploits. Thirdly, it could be an excellent practice run for when the time for larger action was needed. A famous example of this is the Flower War. This was low intensity warfare, a type of training war agreed upon by rivals as to acceptable tactics rules of engagement, and timetables of action. It is suggested by scholars that this later form also gave the citizenry something to root for in daily life, like a sporting event with box scores without much harm. However, failure to accomplish a successful campaign meant the possibility of internal division and chaos, which would lead to the new rulers death.
By Dennis Dunkins II
The use of the military in Mesoamerican culture was not merely an adventure in the use of force to settle political disagreements, but multipurpose in religious, socio-economic and spiritual conceptualize thought.
In many of these societies the objective range from the subjugation of enemies to the need to reduce competition for resources, which often led to greater expansion and further confiscation of resources. An additional reason for violent conflict was the need for the leader to fulfill religious obligations to legitimize their authority to rule. Many of the Kings used warfare to promote their mystical persona and all new rulers were expected to open their new rule with a successful campaign against a chosen enemy. The unfortunate captives were purposefully taken in these exchanges for sacrifice, to prove the Divinity link of the ruler over all life.
The Campaign
Many ancient societies used warfare, as a means to pillage another’s treasuries or control trade routes, but to the Mesoamericans war had to be multifaceted for all of society. These campaigns had a multiple purposes: it increases new resources for the new ruler. Next it opened up society for the commoners through their military exploits. Thirdly, it could be an excellent practice run for when the time for larger action was needed. A famous example of this is the Flower War. This was low intensity warfare, a type of training war agreed upon by rivals as to acceptable tactics rules of engagement, and timetables of action. It is suggested by scholars that this later form also gave the citizenry something to root for in daily life, like a sporting event with box scores without much harm. However, failure to accomplish a successful campaign meant the possibility of internal division and chaos, which would lead to the new rulers death.
May 02, 2009
The Hand to Hand Combat Weapons
The Macana: a sword with obsidian attached along its side to create a blade.
The Tepoztopilli: a spear the lenght of a man with the spear head twice as wide as a mans palm.
The Deadly Weapons
The basic use of spears, dart, and swords. These weapons at first may seem primitive, but were deadly in accuracy.
Atlatl: a spear thrower that used high velocity pressure. The projectile could accurately hit its target over 300ft. away at 150 mph
Otomi class
These fierce warriors were believed to be more of an ethnic group than a specific class.
Warrior Class Eagle and Jaguar
These two class of warriors were the elite in skills and tactics, this branch of warriors were compiled of all classes of society, but became part of the nobility.
Warrior training: Calmecac
The elites in all of these societies were highly trained militarized leadership. From early age each of the Mesoamerican societies used commoners to form the basic infantry with elites being as officers. The elites were members of a special military order called the cuachicqueh “the shorn ones”.
Military Structure
Tlacochcalcatl: in Aztec society the high general was second only to the King. This same structure can be found among Olmec, Mayans, and others.
Mayan Calendar
Tzolk’in
This is the Mayan 260-day calendar used by most Mesoamerican societies at the time. This calendar was primarily used by the Mayans in order to determine the times for religious ceremonies. The Tzolk’in calendar consists of 20 days combined with the thirteen numbers of the “trecena” cycle. The days are named in sequence similar to the modern weekly cycle, and are repeated thirteen times for a grand total of 260 each Tzolk’in year. The origins of the calendar are not clear, but seeing how the numbers twenty and thirteen were very important in Mayan culture may give a hint to an explanation for 260 days (13 X 20 = 260). Also the pregnancy cycle for a woman is approximately 260, which may be another reason for why the calendar revolves around this number.
Haab’
This calendar consisted of 360 days followed by 5 extra days at the end of the year know as Wayeb’ giving a Haab’ year a grand total of 365 days. This calendar is presumed to have its starting point on the winter solstice. The calendar has eighteen named months each having twenty numbered days in them. This calendar was primarily used by the people for keeping track of the seasons. However, because the calendar did not include the extra quarter day in the tropical year, it became more and more inaccurate as the years passed. The five days at the end known as the Wayeb’ were thought to be dangerous and full of misfortune. These days were thought to mark the time of the year when the boundaries between the mortal and realm and the underworld banished. With no barrier to keep the evil from the underworld, people avoided having to go outside during this time of the year.
Name and Meaning
Venus Cycle
The Mayans had highly advanced in astronomy and had no trouble mapping out Venus’ cycle with extreme accuracy. The Mayans achieved this by studying the starts many years until the completion of the cycles of the stars. Venus was viewed as a symbol of war, so the cycle was used to determine the times when was war favorable. Through divination and the placement of Venus in the sky, Mayans would consider going to war or not.
The Long Count
Because the combination of days and months between the Haab’ and Tzolk’in would repeat every 52 years, the Mayans figured they would need another way to identify dates over longer periods of time. Thus, the Long Count was formulated which consisted in the naming of years. Unlike the modern numbering system using the decimal scheme, they used a modified version using a 20 base scheme. One day was known as “K’in.” Twenty of these days were know as a “Winal.” Eighteen Winals made a “Tun,” and twenty Tuns made a “K’atun.”
Baktun = 20 katuns = 144,000 days or about 400 years (394.52 of our years)
Katun = 20 Tuns = 7,200 days or about 20 years (19.73 of our years)
Tun = 18 Uinals = 360 days or about 1 year (less 5 days of one of our years)
Uinal = 20 Kins = 20 days or 1 Maya month
Kin = 1 Day = 24.017 hours
This is the Mayan 260-day calendar used by most Mesoamerican societies at the time. This calendar was primarily used by the Mayans in order to determine the times for religious ceremonies. The Tzolk’in calendar consists of 20 days combined with the thirteen numbers of the “trecena” cycle. The days are named in sequence similar to the modern weekly cycle, and are repeated thirteen times for a grand total of 260 each Tzolk’in year. The origins of the calendar are not clear, but seeing how the numbers twenty and thirteen were very important in Mayan culture may give a hint to an explanation for 260 days (13 X 20 = 260). Also the pregnancy cycle for a woman is approximately 260, which may be another reason for why the calendar revolves around this number.
Haab’
This calendar consisted of 360 days followed by 5 extra days at the end of the year know as Wayeb’ giving a Haab’ year a grand total of 365 days. This calendar is presumed to have its starting point on the winter solstice. The calendar has eighteen named months each having twenty numbered days in them. This calendar was primarily used by the people for keeping track of the seasons. However, because the calendar did not include the extra quarter day in the tropical year, it became more and more inaccurate as the years passed. The five days at the end known as the Wayeb’ were thought to be dangerous and full of misfortune. These days were thought to mark the time of the year when the boundaries between the mortal and realm and the underworld banished. With no barrier to keep the evil from the underworld, people avoided having to go outside during this time of the year.
Name and Meaning
- Pop = Mat
- Yax =Green Storm
- Wo = Black Conjunction
- Sac = White Storm
- Sip = Red Conjunction
- Keh = Red Storm
- Sotz' = Bat
- Mak = Enclosed
- Sek = ?
- K'ank'in = Yellow Sun
- Xul = Dog
- Muwan = Owl
- Yaxk'in = New Sun
- Pax = Planting Time
- Mol = Water
- K'ayab' = Turtle
- Ch'en = Black Storm
- Kumk'u = Granary
Venus Cycle
The Mayans had highly advanced in astronomy and had no trouble mapping out Venus’ cycle with extreme accuracy. The Mayans achieved this by studying the starts many years until the completion of the cycles of the stars. Venus was viewed as a symbol of war, so the cycle was used to determine the times when was war favorable. Through divination and the placement of Venus in the sky, Mayans would consider going to war or not.
The Long Count
Because the combination of days and months between the Haab’ and Tzolk’in would repeat every 52 years, the Mayans figured they would need another way to identify dates over longer periods of time. Thus, the Long Count was formulated which consisted in the naming of years. Unlike the modern numbering system using the decimal scheme, they used a modified version using a 20 base scheme. One day was known as “K’in.” Twenty of these days were know as a “Winal.” Eighteen Winals made a “Tun,” and twenty Tuns made a “K’atun.”
Baktun = 20 katuns = 144,000 days or about 400 years (394.52 of our years)
Katun = 20 Tuns = 7,200 days or about 20 years (19.73 of our years)
Tun = 18 Uinals = 360 days or about 1 year (less 5 days of one of our years)
Uinal = 20 Kins = 20 days or 1 Maya month
Kin = 1 Day = 24.017 hours
May 01, 2009
Mayan Trade and Economy
MAYA TRADE ROUTES
Trade in Maya civilization was a vital element in maintaining cities. The economy was based primarily on the trading of food like corn, squash, and beans. They also bartered for almost any other basic need because it was essential in their supply and demand economy. The types of trade differed significantly, from long-distance trading spanning the length of the Mayan region and beyond, to small trading between farm families. This long distance trade surely went along with the exchange of writing, mathematical skills as well as astronomical knowledge between groups.
The rise of merchants facilitated growth in the middle class as well as the elite class of many communities. Cacao beans were worth transporting for long distances because they were luxury items. A large tomato was worth one bean, a turkey egg was 3 beans, 4 cocoa beans could buy a pumpkin, and 100 could buy a rabbit or a good turkey hen, and 1000 a slave. Possible the most important goods involved in long distance trade were Salt, Obsidian, Jade, Cacao and Quetzal feathers.
The large cities acted as redistribution centers where traders obtained merchandise to sale in smaller cities. The largest known trading center was Tikal. Many goods where exchanged, but primarily the every day goods such as clothes, fruits, vegetables, meat, and pottery. Even the best farmers had to trade some of their crop to purchase salt, chocolate and other merchandise.
SALT SOURCES
• Diet
•Preservatives
•Rituals
•Medicinal
•Birth
•Death
•Armor
OBSIDIAN SOURCES
¨Volcanic glass
¨Daily and ritual life
¨Tools & weapons
¨Art
¨Available to all households unlike Jade
¨Sacrificial Blade
¨Used in some US hospitals today for heart bypass surgery
JADE
¨Beneficial for Kidneys
¨Revered above gold
¨Life
¨Fertility
¨Power
¨Kings & royality (bright green)
SURPRISE CHOCOLATE!!!!!!!
CACAO
¨Culinary
¨Medicinal
¨Economic trade
¨Agricultural
¨Mayan belief that ka'kau' was discovered by the god Hunahpú and given to humans after they were created from maize by the goddess Ixmucané. (Bogin 1997, Coe 1996, Montejo 1999, Tedlock 1985)
¨Medicinal
¨Economic trade
¨Agricultural
¨Mayan belief that ka'kau' was discovered by the god Hunahpú and given to humans after they were created from maize by the goddess Ixmucané. (Bogin 1997, Coe 1996, Montejo 1999, Tedlock 1985)
Bolon Yookte' K'uh
*was a prince of Xibalbá
* as well as a wealthy , he was god of commerce and trade
* he is an old god
*sometimes with the ear of a jaguar
*was a prince of Xibalbá
* as well as a wealthy , he was god of commerce and trade
* he is an old god
*sometimes with the ear of a jaguar
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